The Olfactory Nervous System Of Terrestrial And Aquatic Vertebrates

Animals in their natural milieu are surrounded by odors. These odors are rich source of information, and are perceived by sophisticated olfactory systems, that have evolved over time. The sense of smell helps species to localize prey, evade predators, explore food and recognize viable mates. In humans, memoirs, thoughts, emotions, and associations are more readily reached through the sense of smell than through any other channel. This suggests that olfactory processing is imperative and may differ fundamentally from processing in other sensory modalities. The molecular age in olfaction initiated in 1991 with the significant discovery of a large, multigene family of olfactory receptors in rat by Linda Buck and Richard Axel (Buck and Axel, 1991). The first cloned olfactory receptors consisted of a diverse repertoire of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) with seven-trans membrane topology, and they were sparsely expressed in the olfactory epithelium. This Nobel Prize worthy pioneering discovery, together with availability of modern techniques and numerous completely sequenced genomes opened the way to characterize the gene families of olfactory receptors through exhaustive computational data mining in different species genome as well as by in vitro biology. In this review, I will explain about the two main model organism of olfactory perceptions, zebrafish and mouse

The teleost taar family of olfactory receptors: From rapidly evolving receptor genes to ligand-induced behavior

Trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) have recently been shown to function as olfactory receptors in mammals. In this current study, the taar gene family has been delineated in jawless, cartilaginous, and bony fish (zero, 2, and >100 genes, respectively). I conclude that the taar genes are evolutionary much younger than the related OR and ORA/V1R olfactory receptor families, which are present already in lamprey, a jawless vertebrate. The 2 cartilaginous fish genes appear to be ancestral for 2 taar classes, each with mammalian and bony fish (teleost) representatives. Unexpectedly, a whole new clade, class III, of taar genes originated even later, within the teleost lineage. Taar genes from all 3 classes are expressed in subsets of zebrafish olfactory receptor neurons, supporting their function as olfactory receptors. The highly conserved TAAR1 (shark,mammalian, and teleost orthologs) is not expressed in the olfactory epithelium and may constitute the sole remnant of a primordial, non olfactory function of this family. Class III comprises three-fourths of all teleost taar genes and is characterized by the complete loss of the aminergic ligand-binding motif, stringently conserved in all 25 genes of the other 2 classes. Two independent intron gains in class III taar genes represent extraordinary evolutionary dynamics, considering the virtual absence of intron gains during vertebrate evolution. The dN/dS analysis suggests both minimal global negative selection and an unparalleled degree of local positive selection as another hallmark of class III genes. The accelerated evolution of class III teleost taar genes conceivably might mark the birth of another olfactory receptor gene family. Ligands have only been identified for a handful of olfactory receptors of mammals and insects, while only a single teleost olfactory receptor have been deorphanized, a member of the OlfC family, OlfCa. Zebrafish TAAR olfactory receptors of classI are good candidates for having amines as possible ligands, due to the presence of the aminergic ligand binding motifs. This study identifies diamines as specific ligands for a taar receptor, DrTAAR13c. These diamines activate a sparse subset of olfactory sensory neurons, as indicated by c-Fos expression in olfactory epithelium. Diamines, putrescine and cadaverine, are foul-smelling aliphatic polycations that occur naturally as a result of bacterial decarboxylation of amino acids lysine and arginine, respectively. The 15 concentration of diamines in their environment is correlated to the degree of putrefication. In the behavioral assay, zebrafish exposed to even low concentration of diamines show dramatic, quantifiable aversion, while it shows attraction towards food stimulus and no response for water. The ligand spectrum of TAAR13c closely parallels the behavioral effectiveness of these diamines. This data is consistent with the existence of a defined neuronal microcircuit that elicits a characteristic behavior upon activation of a single olfactory receptor, a novum in the vertebrate sense of smell

Equity & Stock Analysis/Valuation

Insolvency predicator should be read in conjunction with Net Worth of the company & then ascertain potential loss on investment, however liquidation does not took place, just because of inability to pay off debts or other liabilities in short while and not just on the will of lender or creditors ,but depends upon many other factors like earning potential of the company, qualities/vision of management, shareholders/group capacity of pouring additional funds or absorbing losses , lender/creditors tolerance limits and customer faith on the products of the compan

Equity & Stock Analysis/Valuation

Insolvency predicator should be read in conjunction with Net Worth of the company & then ascertain potential loss on investment, however liquidation does not took place, just because of inability to pay off debts or other liabilities in short while and not just on the will of lender or creditors ,but depends upon many other factors like earning potential of the company, qualities/vision of management, shareholders/group capacity of pouring additional funds or absorbing losses , lender/creditors tolerance limits and customer faith on the products of the compan

The Further Education Experiences of Young Males of Pakistani-Origin: A Case Study

This thesis is a case study that explores the further education experiences of young males of Pakistani-origin at Bradford College in the north of England. Bradford is now a de-industrialised city but it originally attracted the first-generation Pakistani migrants in large numbers to its textiles mills in the 1960s. This study seeks to address the following research questions: To what extent does an FE setting meet the aspirations and motivations of Pakistani-origin students to complete their courses and to progress further while negotiating any impending obstacles during their study? To what extent does the students’ cultural or class background enhance or impinge on their learning or educational experiences of an FE college? How does the FE experience correspond with the student perceptions and expectations of their past or post-college trajectories? Despite FE’s marginalised status, it remains popular with BAME students, this along with concerns for achievement gaps for Pakistani-origin students, the paucity of research literature on Pakistani-origin students’ FE experiences and the new application of segmented assimilation theorisation - for all these reasons the study is intended to make original contribution to knowledge. The data was gathered from 26 students and 10 staff who participated in face-to-face semi-structured interviews. By utilising the theoretical framework of ‘segmented assimilation’ (Portes & Zhou, 1993) which theorises three distinct paths open to second-generation migrant children- they can either join the middle classes in the mainstream for an upward assimilation, or they join a downward assimilation into the poor section of the host community, or lastly, they can continue to have economic successes while still continuing to hold their cultural values. In addition to these, there are three other factors that can affect the pace of assimilation- the government’s existing policies towards migrants, the strength of prejudice towards immigrants in the host community and the presence of co-ethnic groups in the host community – these three factors are referred to as the ‘modes of incorporation’. These concepts are applied to FE experiences of the males of Pakistani-origin in this study. The study found that the FE experiences are not always upward assimilation trajectories, as students with low grades, or poor educational experience are vulnerable to downward assimilation while high ability and motivated students are likely to succeed in their studies and follow an upward assimilation path. The study also found that the socio-economic conditions in the city impacted on the youth most adversely

The Impact of Cognitive Biases on The Investment Decision of Individual Investors: The Role of Risk Propensity

This study investigates the impact of cognitive biases on individual investors' investment decisions using the mediation role of risk propensity. Data was collected from 320 investors with a minimum of one year of experience and over a 90-day time frame. A self-administered questionnaire was used, and statistical analysis was performed using smart PLS and SPSS. The results showed that cognitive biases have a positive impact on individual investment decisions, with an indirect effect supporting the meditation model between cognitive biases and investment decisions. The indirect effect of risk propensity also positively influences cognitive biases and investment decisions. This study contributes to the mediating role of risk propensity and validates it from an individual perspective, allowing for better understanding of the relationship between cognitive biases and investment decisions. The outcomes and implications of this research are relevant for behavioral finance-related research and can help individual investors, financial institutions, and governments better understand the role of investors' behavior in the stock market

Bounds on Two Parametric New Generalized Fuzzy Entropy

In this paper we define a new two parametric generalized fuzzy average code-word length...Keywords Fuzzy set, Membership function, Shannon’s entropy, Fuzzy entropy, Code-word length, Kraft inequality, Coding theorem, Holder’s inequality and Optimal code length. More details can be found in the full paper.

An Updated Review on Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and the Current Approaches for Its Treatment

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic self-inflicted inflammatory disease that primarily affects middle-aged women. Globally, 1% of people live with RA. This review aims to provide updated information on the different aspects of RA, including its epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment, and management. A web-based literature search was conducted through various databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct, to identify the most relevant studies. Epidemiological studies have suggested that the prevalence and occurrence of RA have remained inconsistent across geographical areas in different periods. Many factors such as age, gender, inheritances, and environmental exposure can contribute to the severity of the disease. The acute form of RA usually presents with pain, and if left untreated, it can result in joint deformities and influence a patient’s quality of life (QoL). RA diagnosis is usually based on the manifestation of pain with inflammation. Currently, many therapeutic strategies are available for the cure of RA. The management of daily routine activities is required with treatment to curtail the damage, avoid future deformities, and ultimately minimize the aching trouble of the patient